A Small-Molecule Oral Agonist of the Human Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor.

Peptide agonists of the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) have revolutionized diabetes therapy, but their use has been limited because they require injection. Herein, we describe the discovery of the orally bioavailable, small-molecule, GLP-1R agonist PF-06882961 (danuglipron). A sensitized high-throughput screen was used to identify 5-fluoropyrimidine-based GLP-1R agonists that were optimized to promote endogenous GLP-1R signaling with nanomolar potency. Incorporation of a carboxylic acid moiety provided considerable GLP-1R potency gains with improved off-target pharmacology and reduced metabolic clearance, ultimately resulting in the identification of danuglipron. Danuglipron increased insulin levels in primates but not rodents, which was explained by receptor mutagensis studies and a cryogenic electron microscope structure that revealed a binding pocket requiring a primate-specific tryptophan 33 residue. Oral administration of danuglipron to healthy humans produced dose-proportional increases in systemic exposure (NCT03309241). This opens an opportunity for oral small-molecule therapies that target the well-validated GLP-1R for metabolic health.

Active Mars: A Dynamic World.

Mars exhibits diverse surface changes at all latitudes and all seasons. Active processes include impact cratering, aeolian sand and dust transport, a variety of slope processes, changes in polar ices, and diverse effects of seasonal CO2 frost. The extent of surface change has been surprising and indicates that the present climate is capable of reshaping the surface. Activity has important implications for the Amazonian history of Mars: understanding processes is a necessary step before we can understand their implications and variations over time.

Modulating target engagement of small molecules via drug delivery: approaches and applications in drug discovery and development.

Drug-delivery technologies for modified drug release have been in existence for decades, but their utilization has been largely limited to post-launch efforts improving therapeutic outcomes. Recently, they have gained renewed importance because the pharmaceutical industry is steadily shifting to a more integrated discovery-development approach. In discovery, modulating target engagement via drug-delivery technologies can enable crucial pharmacological studies for building well-defined criteria for molecular design. In development, earlier implementation of delivery technologies can enhance the value of drug products through reduced dosing frequency and improved tolerability and/or safety profile, thereby leading to better adherence and therapeutic effectiveness.

The Evolving Druggability and Developability Space: Chemically Modified New Modalities and Emerging Small Molecules.

The druggability and developability space is rapidly evolving in the post-genomic era. In the past, Lipinski's rule-of-five (Ro5) emerged and served as a guide for drug-like molecule design for oral delivery in the traditional druggable target space. In contrast, in this new era, a transition is occurring in drug discovery towards novel approaches to bind and modulate challenging biological targets that have led to transformative treatments for patients. Consequently, drugging novel targets using a variety of emerging molecular modalities, namely beyond the Ro5 (bRo5) small molecules (such as protein-protein interaction modulators, protein-targeted chimeras, or PROTACs), peptide/peptidomimetics, and nucleic acid-based modalities, have become a key focus in drug discovery. Herein, the emerging druggability and developability space is discussed side by side to build a general understanding of the potential development challenges of these novel modalities. An overview is provided on the evolving novel targets and molecular modalities, followed by a detailed analysis of the druggability aspects as well as the strategies used to progress drug candidate, and the trending chemistry and formulation strategies used to assess developability.

Commentary: Why Pharmaceutical Scientists in Early Drug Discovery Are Critical for Influencing the Design and Selection of Optimal Drug Candidates.

This commentary reflects the collective view of pharmaceutical scientists from four different organizations with extensive experience in the field of drug discovery support. Herein, engaging discussion is presented on the current and future approaches for the selection of the most optimal and developable drug candidates. Over the past two decades, developability assessment programs have been implemented with the intention of improving physicochemical and metabolic properties. However, the complexity of both new drug targets and non-traditional drug candidates provides continuing challenges for developing formulations for optimal drug delivery. The need for more enabled technologies to deliver drug candidates has necessitated an even more active role for pharmaceutical scientists to influence many key molecular parameters during compound optimization and selection. This enhanced role begins at the early in vitro screening stages, where key learnings regarding the interplay of molecular structure and pharmaceutical property relationships can be derived. Performance of the drug candidates in formulations intended to support key in vivo studies provides important information on chemotype-formulation compatibility relationships. Structure modifications to support the selection of the solid form are also important to consider, and predictive in silico models are being rapidly developed in this area. Ultimately, the role of pharmaceutical scientists in drug discovery now extends beyond rapid solubility screening, early form assessment, and data delivery. This multidisciplinary role has evolved to include the practice of proactively taking part in the molecular design to better align solid form and formulation requirements to enhance developability potential.

Drug-Excipient Interactions in the Solid State: The Role of Different Stress Factors.

Understanding properties and mechanisms that govern drug degradation in the solid state is of high importance to ensure drug stability and safety of solid dosage forms. In this study, we attempt to understand drug-excipient interactions in the solid state using both theoretical and experimental approaches. The model active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) under study are carvedilol (CAR) and codeine phosphate (COP), which are known to undergo esterification with citric acid (CA) in the solid state. Starting from the crystal structures of two different polymorphs of each compound, we calculated the exposure and accessibility of reactive hydroxyl groups for a number of relevant crystal surfaces, as well as descriptors that could be associated with surface stabilities using molecular simulations. Accelerated degradation experiments at elevated temperature and controlled humidity were conducted to assess the propensity of different solid forms of the model APIs to undergo chemical reactions with anhydrous CA or CA monohydrate. In addition, for CAR, we studied the solid state degradation at varying humidity levels and also under mechano-activation. Regarding the relative degradation propensities, we found that variations in the exposure and accessibility of molecules on the crystal surface play a minor role compared to the impact of molecular mobility due to different levels of moisture. We further studied drug-excipient interactions under mechano-activation (comilling of API and CA) and found that the reaction proceeded even faster than in physical powder mixtures kept at accelerated storage conditions.

Detection of local H2O exposed at the surface of Ceres.

The surface of dwarf planet Ceres contains hydroxyl-rich materials. Theories predict a water ice-rich mantle, and water vapor emissions have been observed, yet no water (H2O) has been previously identified. The Visible and InfraRed (VIR) mapping spectrometer onboard the Dawn spacecraft has now detected water absorption features within a low-illumination, highly reflective zone in Oxo, a 10-kilometer, geologically fresh crater, on five occasions over a period of 1 month. Candidate materials are H2O ice and mineral hydrates. Exposed H2O ice would become optically undetectable within tens of years under current Ceres temperatures; consequently, only a relatively recent exposure or formation of H2O would explain Dawn's findings. Some mineral hydrates are stable on geological time scales, but their formation would imply extended contact with ice or liquid H2O.

Discovery of spirocyclic-diamine inhibitors of mammalian acetyl CoA-carboxylase.

A novel series of spirocyclic-diamine based, isoform non-selective inhibitors of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) is described. These spirodiamine derivatives were discovered by design of a library to mimic the structural rigidity and hydrogen-bonding pattern observed in the co-crystal structure of spirochromanone inhibitor I. The lead compound 3.5.1 inhibited de novo lipogenesis in rat hepatocytes, with an IC50 of 0.30 µM.

Surface acidity and solid-state compatibility of excipients with an acid-sensitive API: case study of atorvastatin calcium.

The objectives of this study were to measure the apparent surface acidity of common excipients and to correlate the acidity with the chemical stability of an acid-sensitive active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) in binary API-excipient powder mixtures. The acidity of 26 solid excipients was determined by two methods, (i) by measuring the pH of their suspensions or solutions and (ii) the pH equivalent (pHeq) measured via ionization of probe molecules deposited on the surface of the excipients. The chemical stability of an API, atorvastatin calcium (AC), in mixtures with the excipients was evaluated by monitoring the appearance of an acid-induced degradant, atorvastatin lactone, under accelerated storage conditions. The extent of lactone formation in AC-excipient mixtures was presented as a function of either solution/suspension pH or pHeq. No lactone formation was observed in mixtures with excipients having pHeq > 6, while the lactone levels were pronounced (> 0.6% after 6 weeks at 50°C/20% RH) with excipients exhibiting pHeq < 3. The three pHeq regions (> 6, 3-6, and < 3) were consistent with the reported solution pH-stability profile of AC. In contrast to the pHeq scale, lactone formation did not show any clear trend when plotted as a function of the suspension/solution pH. Two mechanisms to explain the discrepancy between the suspension/solution pH and the chemical stability data were discussed. Acidic excipients, which are expected to be incompatible with an acid-sensitive API, were identified based on pHeq measurements. The incompatibility prediction was confirmed in the chemical stability tests using AC as an example of an acid-sensitive API.

Pharmacokinetics and metabolism studies on the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)-derived metabolite GLP-1(9-36)amide in male Beagle dogs.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)(7-36)amide is a 30-amino acid peptide hormone that is secreted from intestinal enteroendocrine L-cells in response to nutrients. GLP-1(7-36)amide possesses potent insulinotropic actions in the augmentation of glucose-dependent insulin secretion. GLP-1(7-36)amide is rapidly metabolized by dipeptidyl peptidase-IV to yield GLP-1(9-36)amide as the principal metabolite. Contrary to the earlier notion that peptide cleavage products of native GLP-1(7-36)amide [including GLP-1(9-36)amide] are pharmacologically inactive, recent studies have demonstrated cardioprotective and insulinomimetic effects with GLP-1(9-36)amide in mice, dogs and humans. In the present work, in vitro metabolism and pharmacokinetic properties of GLP-1(9-36)amide have been characterized in dogs, since this preclinical species has been used as an animal model to demonstrate the in vivo vasodilatory and cardioprotective effects of GLP-1(9-36)amide. A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry assay was developed for the quantitation of the intact peptide in hepatocyte incubations as opposed to a previously reported enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Although GLP-1(9-36)amide was resistant to proteolytic cleavage in dog plasma and bovine serum albumin (t1/2>240 min), the peptide was rapidly metabolized in dog hepatocytes with a t1/2 of 110 min. Metabolite identification studies in dog hepatocytes revealed a variety of N-terminus cleavage products, most of which, have also been observed in human and mouse hepatocytes. Proteolysis at the C-terminus was not observed in GLP-1(9-36)amide. Following the administration of a single intravenous bolus dose (20 µg/kg) to male Beagle dogs, GLP-1(9-36)amide exhibited a mean plasma clearance of 15 ml/min/kg and a low steady state distribution volume of 0.05 l/kg, which translated into a short elimination half life of 0.05 h. Following subcutaneous administration of GLP-1(9-36)amide at 50 µg/kg, systemic exposure of GLP-1(9-36)amide as ascertained from maximal plasma concentrations and area under the plasma concentration-time curve from zero to infinity was 44 ng/ml and 32 ng h/ml, respectively. The subcutaneous bioavailability of GLP-1(9-36)amide in dogs was 57%. Our findings raise the possibility that the cardioprotective effects of GLP-1(9-36)amide in the conscious dog model of pacing-induced heart failure might be due, at least in part, to the actions of additional downstream metabolites, which are obtained from proteolytic cleavage of the peptide backbone in the parent compound in the liver.

Physicochemical property trends of marketed prodrugs.

Many prodrug reviews describe specific examples of the successful application of prodrug technology to produce blockbuster drugs, such as simvastatin, omeprazole, acyclovir and enalapril. These reviews are helpful to understand the previous success stories and case histories of prodrug technology. The aim of the current review seeks to more clearly define quantitative trends in the changes in the physicochemical property parameters between the successful prodrug and the active parent molecule. This information can serve to guide medicinal chemists toward more successful pharmaceutical prodrugs in the future.

Nasal-to-CNS drug delivery: where are we now and where are we heading? An industrial perspective.

Delivery of drug therapeutics across the blood-brain barrier is a challenging task for pharmaceutical scientists. Nasal-to-CNS drug delivery has shown promising results in preclinical efficacy models and investigatory human clinical trials. The further development of this technology with respect to the establishment of valid, predictable preclinical species models, translatable pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationships and definition of toxicology impact will help attract additional pharmaceutical investment in this drug-delivery approach. Further discoveries in nasal nanotechnology, targeted delivery devices and diagnostic olfactory imaging will serve to fuel the advancements in this area of drug delivery.

Discovery of 1-[9-(4-chlorophenyl)-8-(2-chlorophenyl)-9H-purin-6-yl]-4-ethylaminopiperidine-4-carboxylic acid amide hydrochloride (CP-945,598), a novel, potent, and selective cannabinoid type 1 receptor antagonist.

We report the structure-activity relationships, design, and synthesis of the novel cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor antagonist 3a (CP-945,598). Compound 3a showed subnanomolar potency at human CB1 receptors in binding (Ki = 0.7 nM) and functional assays (Ki = 0.12 nM). In vivo, compound 3a reversed cannabinoid agonist-mediated responses, reduced food intake, and increased energy expenditure and fat oxidation in rodents.

The use of mixed-mode ion-exchange solid phase extraction to characterize pharmaceutical drug degradation.

Solid phase extraction (SPE) has been utilized extensively in the pharmaceutical industry for the isolation of pharmaceuticals from interfering biological matrices and the purification and concentration of impurities and degradation products present in analytical samples. The work described herein involves the novel use of mixed-mode ion-exchange solid phase extraction to characterize degradation products of several pharmaceutical drugs, thereby giving important clues to their structure and sites of reactivity. Several examples of the use of mixed-mode ion-exchange solid phase extraction to illustrate the utility of this technique are presented.

Hydrolysis in pharmaceutical formulations.

This literature review presents hydrolysis of active pharmaceutical ingredients as well as the effects on dosage form stability due to hydrolysis of excipients. Mechanisms and measurement methods are discussed and recommendations for formulation stabilization are listed.

Stabilization of pharmaceuticals to oxidative degradation.

A guide for stabilization of pharmaceuticals to oxidation is presented. Literature is presented with an attempt to be a ready source for data and recommendations for formulators. Liquid and solid dosage forms are discussed with options including formulation changes, additives, and packaging documented. In particular, selection of and methods for use of antioxidants are discussed including recommended levels.